differences between Production , Selling and marketing concept simplified

differences between Production , Selling and marketing concept simplified

Marketing in Brief

Marketing Defenition 

Marketing is the process of anticipation , identification and satisfaction of customer needs through a profit 

Factors affecting Customer Satisfaction 

Friendly Employees

Helpful Employees

Quick Service

Billing Clarity

Knowledgeable employees

Accuracy of Billing

Billing Timelines

Courteous Employee

Marketers Must know the following

Themselves 

The Customers

The Competitors

The Environment

Marketing Manager

Is the bridge between company and customers 

Marketing Manager functions are

APIC

Analysis 

Planning 

Implementation 

Control 

Marketing Management

Art and Science 

To choose Target markets and  getting , keeping  and growing customers through creating  

Delivering and communicating superior customer value 

Differences between customers needs , wants and Demands 

Needs like hunger

Wants Hunger translated to want of bread 

Demands is a human want powered by Money 

Golden Rule

Ads can not make consumers buy things that they do not need 

Marketing Management philosophies 

Production then Product  then Selling then Marketing Concept then societal Marketing concept 

Though Marketing Management is Customer Driven

Push Strategy versus Pull Strategy 

Selling focuses on the needs of the Seller

Marketing focused on the needs of the buyers

How to Energize your team participation during brainstorming sessions

• Encourage open dialogue by making it clear at the outset that the final outcome is not predetermined 
• Suggest that people try to think outside of their individual or departmental roles. 
• Provide closure at the end of every meeting by assigning tasks and deadlines so people are accountable .
• Recognize and thank people who share their ideas and viewpoints in a positive manner—especially those who are willing to take the risk to challenge you.

What do You have to consider when implementing a Decision ?

• Priotrize tasks and who is responsible and allocate resources.                                                                                     If the sales force may not have extensive product knowledge and may need the help of a content profession.                                                                        You might need to assign an expert in product knowledge to work with the training department to develop a program.
• Set clear objectives  and inform about incentives. if A key account manager  is going to start managing the company's largest customer , so we have explain what this customer means to the organization and your expectations for managing the relationship. Determine  the  result in a pay increase or change in title, and follow up with your Human Resources department to make that happen.
• Continuous feedback on the implementation. Give your employees feedback on the progress of the implementation plan. Your input should be constructive and focused on accountability and execution. 
• Set a time for daily or weekly status meetings. This will help you stay informed of your group's progress during implementation.
• Take a look by yourself. Check with people informally. Ask them how the project is going and if they have any concerns about it. Be interested not only in issues related to implementation, such as schedule and budget, but also whether your employees believe that the project is effectively addressing the problem it is intended to solve.
• Recognize people's work. Implementation often goes unnoticed unless it fails. If things are going well, recognize individual contributions and celebrate successes.

المفاتيح الثلاث لكنز التركيز كيف تزيد قدرتك على التركيز ؟

يا عم ركز بقى

م . سعد بعد الغفار

المفاتيح الثلاث لكنز التركيز

في يوم من الأيام، وبينما كان الإمام مالك رحمه الله في مجلسه بين جملة من أصحابه، إذا بقائل يقول: قد حضر الفيل، فخرج أصحاب مالك كلهم لينظروا إليه إلا واحدًا منهم، اسمه يحيى بن يحيى، وكان قد حضر من الأندلس إلى المدينة المنورة؛ ليسمع ويتعلم على يد الإمام مالك رحمه الله.

فتعجب مالك رحمه الله من صنيع يحيى، وقال له: لِمَ لم تخرج فترى الفيل؛ إذ ليس بأرض الأندلس؟ فرد عليه يحيى بن يحيى بكلمات تقطر بالحكمة وتخلص سبب من أسباب نبوغه، فقال: إنما جئت من بلدي، لأنظر إليك، وأتعلم من هديك وعلمك، لا إلى أن أنظر إلى الفيل.

ومن يومها أعجب به مالك وسماه العاقل، وعُرف ذلك التلميذ النجيب بعاقل أهل الأندلس، حتى قال الفقيه المالكي ابن لبابة الأندلسي: (فقيه الأندلس عيسى بن دينار، وعالمها ابن حبيب، وعاقلها يحيى بن يحيى)، بل وزاد على ذلك الشيرازي حين وصف يحيى بن يحيى بقوله: (وإليه انتهت الرئاسة بالأندلس في العلم).

إنه موقف يخبرنا فيه يحيى بن يحيى عن سبب من أسباب عبقرية أي إنسان في الحياة، وعن سر من أسرار نجاح أي فرد في تحقيق أحلامه، ألا وهو القدرة على التركيز على أهداف الحياة دون سواها، وصب الاهتمام على إنجاز الأولويات دون غيرها، فهيَّا بنا ـ عزيزي القارئ ـ لنبحر معًا في سفينة التركيز، حتى تصل بنا إلى شاطئ النجاح.

العدسة المجمعة:

هل جربت أن تجعل ضوء الشمس ينفذ عبر عدسة مجمعة للضوء؛ لكي يسقط على ورقة بيضاء؟ إن لم تكن قد جربت ذلك من قبل، فدعني أصف لك المشهد.

ببساطة سيصبح ضوء الشمس، ذلك النجم الكبير، كأنه نقطة أو على الأكثر دائرة صغيرة على تلك الورقة البيضاء، ولو كانت تلك العدسة المجمعة ذات قوة عالية في التركيز والتجميع، فيمكنها أن تحرق تلك الورق أو أن تحدث فيها ثقبًا على الأقل!

ربما تقول وما علاقة نجاحي بتلك العدسة المجمعة وضوء الشمس، وتلك التجارب الفيزيائية، والنظريات العلمية المعقدة؟! وهذا ما قد يبدو لأول وهلة صحيحًا، ولكن ثمة علاقة لصيقة بينهما.

فالشمس في المثال السابق بمثابة الطاقات والإمكانات البشرية، والعدسة المجمعة هي قدرة الذهن على التركيز، والثقب الذي حدث في الورقة البيضاء هو نتاج تركيز الذهن على استثمار تلك الطاقات والإمكانات.

الجواب على الأسئلة المحيرة:

أحيانًا ما يقف العقل البشري حائرًا؛ من أجل الإجابة عن بعض الأسئلة المحيرة، مثل أن يسأل أحدنا نفسه فيقول: لماذا يكون إنجازي للأهداف بطئيًا؟ أو ربما يسأل آخر: لقد بذلت الكثير من المجهود في المذاكرة، ولكنني لا أحقق درجات عالية، فلماذا؟! أو يتعجب ثالث فيقول: إنني أعمل لساعات طويلة، وزميلي في العمل يعمل أقل مني، ولكنه ينجز أهدافه بسرعة ودقة أكبر مني، فما السبب؟!

وما سبق ليس إلا أمثلة بسيطة على سيل من الأسئلة وفيضان من علامات الاستفهام، والتي يمكننا أن نجيب عنها بأن السبب الرئيسي هو: ضعف أو ربما فقد التركيز.

المشكلة ليست في الجهاز:

يحكي زيج زيجلار في كتابه (النجاح للمبتدئين) عن موقف شخصيٍّ حدث له فيقول: (عندما أشارك في ندوة صغيرة عادة ما أستخدم الأفلام الشفافة كوسيلة للإيضاح، ودائمًا لا أقوم بضبط بؤرة جهاز العرض عندما أقوم بعرض أول صورة، وغالبًا ما أتظاهر بأنني لم ألاحظ المشكلة، وهكذا أواصل حديثي مع الجماهير لعدة دقائق.

ثم أقوم بمراقبة كل هؤلاء الأفراد الذين يشيرون بأصابعهم إلى الجهاز ليلفتوا انتباهي إلى المشكلة، وفي هذه النقطة أقول للجماهير: في الواقع، ليست هناك مشكلة في الجهاز نفسه، فكل ما هناك أنه يحتاج إلى ضبط، وبالمثل فإن حياة العديد من الناس كهذا الجهاز، لا تحتاج ببساطة سوى لضبط البؤرة، فحياة هؤلاء الناس تسير في عشرات الاتجاهات المختلفة؛ ونتيجة ذلك أنهم نادرًا ما يحققون أهدافهم الرئيسية في الحياة).

وكذلك ـ عزيزي القارئ ـ ليست المشكلة في نقص القدرات والإمكانات؛ فقد حبا الله عز وجل بها كل واحد منا، وإنما يكمن التحدي الأكبر لنا، في ضبط بؤرة التركيز على أهداف الحياة، بدلًا من تشتيتها بين مهام الحياة المختلفة.

الطريق إلى العبقرية:

(العبقرية هي القدرة على التركيز على شيء واحد في المرة الواحدة)، هكذا يصف زيج زيجلار الركن الرئيسي في العبقرية، ألا وهو قوة التركيز، وإليك قصة عبقري من عباقرة العصر الحديث، وهو العالم الشهير نيوتن، فهي قصة توضح لك مدى تركيزه فيما كان يقوم به من العمل، وكيف كان ذلك سفينته إلى شاطئ العبقرية.

ففي يوم من الأيام وبينما هو منشغل بحل واحدة من المشاكل العلمية المعقدة، نسى نيوتن أن يتناول إفطاره، ولم تشأ زوجته أن تقطع عليه خلوته العلمية، ولكنها في الوقت نفسه كانت قلقة عليه من جراء العمل وهو جائع.

فرحت الزوجة كثيرًا حين جاءها البائع ببعض البيض الطازج؛ فقد كان نيوتن مولعًا بتناول مثل هذا البيض مسلوقًا، بل وكان يصنعه بنفسه على موقد صغير في حجرة مكتبه، فناولته البيض، ومدت يدها إليه بالساعة وذكَّرته ألا يترك البيض في الماء حين يغلي أكثر من ثلاث دقائق، وغادرت الحجرة حتى لا تثقل على العالم المجد.

لكنها حين عادت لأخد الوعاء بما تبقى فيه وجدت البيض وما زال في يد نيوتن، كما وجدت الساعة غارقة في وعاء المياه التي طال غليانها، وبالطبع لم تكن تلك حادثة استثنائية في حياة نيوتن، بل يُروى عن تركيزه الكثير من القصص والحكايات.

عقبات على الطريق:

إذًا التركيز هو طريق للنجاح والعبقرية، ولكن دون الوصول إلى ذلك عقبات، تضعف من تركيز الواحد منا، وتجعل ذهنه شاردًا ومشتتًا، ولعل لذلك أسباب من أهمها ما يلي:

1- وجود مشكلة ملحة تطاردنا، قد تكون مشكلة شخصية أو عائلية أو عاطفية أو مالية أو اجتماعية.

2- توقع حدوث أمر مخيف والانشغال به.

3- المعاناة من مشكلة صحية.

4- وقوع أمر يؤدي إلى الفرح الشديد.

5- التعود على العيش أسير الخيالات والأوهام غير الواقعية والتعلق بها.

6- أن يكون فى المحيط الذي تعيش أو تعمل فيه ما يشغل الفكر؛ ويؤدى لعدم الارتياح، ومن أمثلة ذلك: الترتيب غير المناسب والمزعج لحجرتك، أو شدة الضوضاء في مكان عملك أو دراستك.

كيف السبيل؟

والطريق إلى تجاوز تلك العقبات، وحيازة قوة التركيز يحتاج إلى مفاتيح ثلاث؛ لفك شفرة كنز التركيز، وهذه المفاتيح هي:

أولًا ـ اجعل بيئتك المحيطة تدفعك إلى التركيز:

1. رتب المكان الذي تجلس فيه؛ فكلما كان المكان مرتبًا، كان ذلك مدعمًا لتركيزك.

2. في أثناء حديثك مع زملائك، اجعل اهتمامك وانتباهك منصبًّا على فهم ما يقولونه، ولا تجعل ما يلبسونه أو يحملونه معهم يشتت ذهنك.

3. قم بتجهيز كل ما تحتاج إليه في إنجاز مهامك من الأدوات والآلات قبل البدء فيها؛ فإن قيامك من أجل جلب هذه الأدوات وسط العمل يشتت الانتباه، ويضعف التركيز.

ثانيًا ـ اجعل صحتك أفضل:

فهناك حكمة تقول: (العقل السليم في الجسم السليم)، ولذا؛ إليك بعض الاقتراحات من أجل صحة أفضل، وتركيز أقوى:

1. إذا شعرت بالإجهاد فتوقف عما تقوم به من مهام، وخذ قسطًا من الاسترخاء، واغمض عينيك، وخذ نفسًا عميقًا عدة مرات، ثم عد لما كنت تقوم به بعد ذلك.

2. إذا كنت تشعر بالخمول، فجدد التهوية فى موقعك، وتحرك قليلًا من مكانك، أو مارس بعض التمارين الرياضية الخفيفة لبضع دقائق.

3. بادر بعلاج ما تعانيه من مشكلات صحية، وإذا كنت تعانى من مشكلة، فلا تبالغ في أمرها، ولا تعطها تفكيرًا أكبر من حجمها.

4. أعطِ نفسك قدرًا كافيًا من الراحة قبل بدء التفكير وممارسة العمل.

5. لا تبدأ التفكير في المسائل المهمة بعد تناول الطعام مباشرة، ولا أثناء الجوع الشديد والظمأ المفرط.

ثالثًا ـ تدرب على التركيز:

1. عوِّد نفسك على أن تعيش لحظتك، وأن تحصر نفسك فيما أنت فيه فقط، وحاول أن تنسى أو تتناسى كل ما عداه.

2. عد الأرقام تنازليًّا من 100 إلى واحد، واحدًا واحدًا، هكذا: 100، 99، 98، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى اثنين اثنين، هكذا: 100، 98، 96، 94، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى ثلاثة ثلاثة، هكذا: 100، 97، 94، 91، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى أربعة أربعة، هكذا: 100، 96، 92، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى خمسة خمسة، هكذا: 100، 95، 90، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى ستة ستة، هكذا: 100، 94، 88، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى سبعة سبعة، هكذا: 100، 93، 86، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى ثمانية ثمانية، هكذا: 100، 92، 84، ...إلخ.

ثم عدها مرة أخرى تسعة تسعة، هكذا: 100، 91، 82، ...إلخ.

وكرر هذا التمرين كل يوم مرة لمدة شهر على الأقل.

3. قم بالتدريب الآتي:

· ركِّز على صورة معينة لفترة طويلة نسبيًّا، ركِّز فى ألوانها، وأشكالها، وحجمها، وكل شيء فيها.

· أغمض عينيك، وحاول أن تتذكر كل شيء عن هذه الصورة.

· افتح عينيك، وانظر كم استطعت أن تحصل من تفاصيل فى ذهنك.

وختامًا:

إذًا فالنجاح والتميز في الحياة لا يتوقف فقط على القدرات العقلية الباهرة، ولا على بذل المجهود الوافر، ولكن لابد من قوة تصقل تلك القدرات وتوجه تلك المجهودات، وهذه القوة هي قوة التركيز على الأهداف، والسعي في تحقيقها في أسرع وقت وبأفضل كفاءة.

وتذكر دائمًا قول الروائي الإنجليزي الشهير تشارلز ديكنز، وهو يصف لك روشتة نجاحه فيقول: (لم أكن أبدًا لأحقق النجاح بدون عادات الدقة والنظام والاجتهاد والتصميم على التركيز على عمل واحد كل مرة).

أهم المراجع:

1. النجاح للمبتدئين، زيج زيجلار.

2. حتى لا تكون كلًّا، د.عوض القرني.

3. قوة التركيز، د.آن ويزر كورنيل.

4. أنت عبقري ولكن كيف تنمي قدراتك، محمد فتحي.

5. قوة التركيز، جاك كانفيلد ومارك فيكتور هانسن ولس هيوت.

6. ترتيب المدارك وتقريب المسالك، القاضي عياض.

10 components to prepare a Marketing Plan - business plan

• Executive summary - a snapshot of your business.
• Company description - describes what you do.
• Market analysis - research on your industry, market, and competitors.
• Organization and management - your business and management structure.
• Service or product - the products or services you're offering.
• Marketing and sales - how you'll market your business and your sales strategy.
• Funding request - how much money you'll need for next 3 to 5 years.
• Financial projections - supply information like balance sheets.
• Appendix- an optional section that includes résumés and permits.

Some important Marketing abbreviations

AIDA = Awarness then interest then desire then action to buy 

             It is about funneling of your customers 

BNAT= Budget - Need - Authority - Time Limit 

            Stands for factors that must be found in any purchaser 

4 Ps = Product - Price - Place - Promotion 

            Marketing Mix

3 Es = Effecient - Effective - Economic 

AIME = Analysis and Improvement of Marketing Effectiveness 

AMPR = Advertising Marketing Public Relation 

AIMS = Adeverting Integrated Marketing Solutions 

B&L  = Benifit and Loss

BM = Biopsy Marketing 

CRM = Customer Retention Management 

CRM = Customer Relationship Marketing 

CLM = Closed Loop Marketing / Multichannel Feedback and Approach to increase awareness and feedback 

DM = Digital Marketing 

DDM = Direct Digital Marketing 

EVM = Effective Visual Marketing 

IMS = Integrated Marketing Solutions 

IM = Internet Marketing 

Gurrilla Strategy = Cheap Innovative Creative Marketing Solutions like Graffiti 

LAM = Local Area Marketing 

MLM = Multi Level Marketing 

MM = Mobile Marketing 

OBM = Occasion Based Marketing 

PIM = Profitable Interest  Marketing 

Slim Approach

SDM = Sales Driver Marketing 

SMC = Strategic  Marketing Communication 

TDM = Technology Driver Marketing 

T M = Tele Marketing 

TN = Tree Network

         Marketing System like MLM 

SM = Social Media 

Easy Marketing Strategies and tools for Small Bussiness

- Facebook Advertising

- write a column in a website or newspaper 

- Google My Business 

- Adwords Google

- Partnerships with other Bussinesses

- Content Marketing 

- Mobile IOS application and android App

- Organic Social Media Approach

- Local Community Groups Rotary , Lions etc

- Coupons Deal Sites

- Email Marketing but to be linked to a Value for Target Customers 

- YouTube Acccount 

- Webinar 

- Free Consultation Services

- Reffreals bonus and start with your own team who brings in New Prospect

- Adertise in local and Small Newspapers or printed materials 

- Local Differentiated Bussiness societies will give you better feedback and Market understanding 

- Direct Mail Marketing 

- Share in Local events as speaker or by Borchures and Stands and promotional material
- Lead Magnet Approach like join us on Facebook
- Understand and UseSearch Engines Optimization tools
- user the right Influencers on Social Media
- Focus on Helping others  they will Help you Later
- Maintained relationships with all customers
-
- Network your Networki to friends and colleagues but not Spam
-  Use Linkedin portfolio to promote video about Your Business

How to write your Marketing Strategy Statement

When you put the five key decisions of marketing strategy in a sentence form, it looks like this fill-in-the-blank statement:

Your company name is the leading category for target customers that provides unique benefit. Unlike competitors, your company does unique differentiator.

Our growth rate doubled when we focused and committed to this clear and simple marketing strategy.

Try it for yourself: Fill in the blanks to create the marketing strategy statement for your own business. Get some perspective from employees, friends and best customers. List all the possibilities and then make some decisions. Say it out loud a few times. You should feel clarity and power coming through. It will also show you a few things you could stop doing in your business that would create more focus.

Here's the real secret that successful companies practice with extreme discipline:Creating a clear marketing strategy is not what companies do after they get big, it's what small companies do to grow and get bigger in the first place

Questions to be asked before setting a Marketing Strategy for any Business

1. Who is your defined target customers ?
2. In which category does your business exist?
3. What is your differntiated benefit?
4. Who is your real competitor ?
5. How are you  different from your competitors?

To make your tactics work better, you have to decide on the  simple answer to each of these questions 

Who is Your Target Customer?

to define your target customer "Who do you serve?" always needs to be answered clearly before you can execute any tactic effectively. This means you have to say "no" to other potential customers who might buy from you but who are clearly bad fits for your narrow focus. This takes time to develop the discipline, but you can't do effective marketing without 

Focusing on a well-defined target may make you uncomfortable at first, but stay the course and follow through

The narrower you define your market so you can focus on those that you can best serve and those that can best service you, the more effective your entire business wil be

What is Your Category?

 short description of what business you are in. What few words would someone say to describe your business?  

Most business owners can't resist over-complicating their company descriptions. This leaves people unsure of what you actually do, which weakens your marketing effectiveness. Here's a simple rule: If someone can't clearly remember your category description a month after you meet them, they were never clear about what you do in the first place.

Clearly defining your category helps amplify your marketing and sales efforts. Think of what it would take to be the best – the leader – in your category. 

What is Your Unique Benefit over competitors ?

Your unique benefit should highlight the one (or two) main things your product or service actually delivers (benefits) that your target customer really wants, not a long list of all the things your product does .

Who is Your Competition?

When someone is looking to buy a solution to a problem, they will quickly make sense of the alternatives to compare against – your competition. 

You need to be clear in your own mind about what your biggest competitor is. 

Why Are You Different and Better for Your Target Customer?

Once you have defined your competition, make a list of all the things you do differently and better. Then rank each of them by how important these factors are to your target customer. 

Don't overcomplicate this. People just want to know one or two things to move their decision along. Is it cheaper? faster ? 

Definition of Health Care Marketing

Definition of Marketing by different societies
The American Marketing Association
"the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and society at large". 

Kotler & Armstrong 
"a social and managerial process by which individuals and organizations obtain what they need and want through creating and ex- changing value with others"

differnces between the health care services in general from the other economic fields  are the primary aims to help others, the aspiration to save human life and to improve the quality of life. However, those are very difficult to grasp and any measurement, from an economic point of view, is highly problematic.
Buckley 
marketing in the health care sector as self-education with the aim to find the needs and requirements of potential clients. Consequently, we will attract those clients if we are able to offer the required services when needed, at the right time and in the right place. Winston (1985) de nes marketing in health care sector as a discipline that helps us understand:
 Functioning of current marketing services
 The role of health care institutions in providing the health care services
 Mechanism for balancing the capacity of establishment with service demand  The way to establish the level of client satisfaction
Winston (1985) also defines the initial assumptions when applying marketing strategies in health care:

1. In the health care sector a client is a patient.
   
2. A patient's recommendation is the biggest marketing success of the health care establish-
   ment's marketing.
   
3. Every health care institution has to evaluate the effectiveness of their services regularly and
   must not assume the fact that having clients using their services means that they are indeed
   satisfied.
   
4. Marketing is a useful management tool but it cannot offer solutions to all problems re-
   lated to the effective management of a successful organisation. 
   It has to be complemented by financial management, human resource management, strategic planning and economic analyses.
   

If we were to apply a definition of marketing in the health care sector to hospitals, we could state that hospital marketing is the process of recognizing the needs and requirements of clients, anticipating demands and reacting and meeting requirements in such a manner that brings both client satisfaction as well as ensuring the effective financial management of the hospital. Accord- ing to Gladkij (2003) the focus of marketing management is mainly to establish long term goals in regards to expected external economic trends.
Competition in the hospital market provides the groundwork for the application of marketing management and marketing tools in this Field. According to Hoffmann, Grossterlin 

What is functions and Job Description of Marketing Manager in hospitals

 create and implement marketing plans for hospitals and medical facilities.

 plan programs and events that build relationships between healthcare personnel and patients, 

position the medical center's products and services favorably in the healthcare market. 

designing hospital brochures, 

posting and editing content on the hospital's website, 

identifying specialty practices that or physicians who can help increase marketing value for the healthcare facilities

Skills required

Strong analytical, 

problem-solving, 

organizational and project management skills 

 Sufficient computer proficiency  as marketers must frequently use spreadsheet, word processing, 

presentation 

email software applications. 

Candidates should also be able to prioritize projects with little supervision and meet tight deadlines.

Factors affecting Decision Making Macro and Micro Factors ( Total Environment )

You can take some items from this topic  Especially those underlined as an individual factor  Zidan  😜😜😜😜 We can organise the factors affecting decision making into three major groups: Perception Issues Organisational Issues Environmental Issues

Perception Issues:		Perception can be described as the way in which individuals interpret their environment. An individual's perception can influence how they make decisions and solve problems Perception can be influenced by the following: The perceiver The object The situation The Perceiver The perceiver, the individual perceiving the object, will be heavily influenced by their personal characteristics. The types of personal characteristics that can affect an individual's perception include: Background and experience Personal values Personal expectations Personal interests The Object The object, which refers to any person, item or event can have an impact on the way it is perceived. For example, when a manager receives a number of reports to read he may be more inclined to read the one with the most colourful cover as this one stands out. The Situation Time, location and other situational factors can influence our perception of an object. For example, a Team Leader may notice team members who work late on the same evenings as the Team Leader. However, team members who work late on other evenings may not be noticed by the Team Leader.

Issues  within the Organisation:		A number of organisational issues can impact on the decision making process. These issues include: Policies and procedures Organisational hierarchy Organisational politics Policies and Procedures Many organisations have formalised policies and procedures which have been developed to resolve common problems and to guide managers when making decisions. For example, many organisations have documented disciplinary procedures which guide managers through a process of resolving issues with staff members. Organisational Hierarchy Organisational hierarchy refers to the management structure of the organisation. Most organisations have different levels of management which carry with them different degrees of authority. The degree of authority directly impacts on the nature of the decisions an individual can make. For example, a Customer Contact Centre Team Leader cannot make decisions about the overall goals of the organisation. However, the Team Leader can make decisions about how their team contributes to the achievement of the organisation's goals. Organisational Politics Organisational politics refers to behaviour displayed by individuals and groups which is designed to influence others. Individuals and teams will often use politics to: Advance their careers Advance their interests and ideas Increase their rewards Organisations are made up of individuals with different beliefs, values and interests. These differences are often the driving forces behind organisational politics. For example, two teams believe they require an extra team member. Unfortunately the organisation can only afford one new employee. The two teams may well use politics in an attempt to influence their manager to allocate the new employee to their team.

Issues  within the Environment:
		Environmental issues are the external factors that affect the organisation. The types of external factors that can have an effect on decision making include:  The market in which the organisation operates The economy Government legislation Customers' reaction to the organisation's products and services For example, B&B online™ decided to create a new team, B&B for Busy Bodies™ because they believed that a corporate market existed for the bed and breakfast industry.

		You can take some items from this topic dear Zidan

Individual factors affecting ethical Decision Making

​Significant individual factors that affect the ethical decision-making process include 

personal moral philosophy, 

stage of moral development

, motivation, 

other personal factors such as gender, age, and experience. 

Lamia  😍😍😍

Moral philosophies 

are the principles or rules that individuals apply in deciding what is right or wrong. 

Most moral philosophies can be classified as consequentialism, ethical formalism, or justice.

 Consequentialist philosophies consider a decision to be right or acceptable if it accomplishes a desired result such as pleasure, knowledge, career growth, the realization of self-interest, 

.

​The culture of the organization

, as well as superiors, peers, and subordinates, can have a significant impact on the ethical decision-making process. Organizational, or corporate, culture can be defined as a set of values, beliefs, goals, norms, and rituals shared by members or employees of an organization. 

Individual factors affecting Decision making process

Factors that Influence Decision Making

Past experiences 

can impact future decision making and past decisions influence the decisions people make in the future. It stands to reason that when something positive results from a decision, people are more likely to decide in a similar way, given a similar situation. On the other hand, people tend to avoid repeating past mistakes .

 cognitive biases 

 influence decision making. Cognitive biases are thinking patterns based on observations and generalizations that may lead to memory errors, inaccurate judgments, and faulty logic 

Cognitive biases include

belief bias, 

the over dependence on prior knowledge in arriving at decisions;

 hindsight bias, 

people tend to readily explain an event as inevitable, once it has happened; 

omission bias, generally, people have a propensity to omit information perceived as risky; and confirmation bias, in which people observe what they expect in observations 

escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes

 which are unrecoverable costs. Juliusson, Karlsson, and Garling (2005) concluded people make decisions based on an irrational escalation of commitment, that is, individuals invest larger amounts of time, money, and effort into a decision to which they feel committed; further, 

Some individual differences may also influence decision making. Research has indicated that age, socioeconomic status (SES), and cognitive abilities influences decision making 

Age factor 

a significant difference in decision making across age; that is, as cognitive functions decline as a result of age, decision making performance may decline as well. In addition, older people may be more overconfident regarding their ability to make decisions, which inhibits their ability to apply strategies (de Bruin et al., 2007). Finally, with respect to age, there is evidence to support the notion that older adults prefer fewer choices than younger adults 

Age is only one individual difference that influences decision making. According to de Bruin et al. (2007), people in lower SES groups may have less access to education and resources, which may make them more susceptible to experiencing negative life events, often beyond their control; as a result, low SES individuals may make poorer decisions, based on past decisions.

 the belief in personal relevance. 

When people believe what they decide matters, they are more likely to make a decision. Acevedo and Krueger (2004) examined individuals' voting patterns, and concluded that people will vote more readily when they believe their opinion is indicative of the attitudes of the general population, 

Decision Making: Root Cause Analysis in brief

To get to the core of a problem, perform a root cause analysis. 

This is a process in which you repeatedly make a statement of fact and ask the question: "Why? 

For example, the CEO of  pizza chain noticed that he was losing sales because his home deliveries were slower than competitors. 

suggestions that they invest in a fleet of delivery vehicles to solve this problem. 

Instead of jumping to this conclusion, the manager asks: "Our pizza deliveries are slow. Why?

 Our delivery associates drive old cars that are in poor condition. Why?

 They can't afford repairs or newer cars. Why? 

They don't have the money. Why? 

Their pay is too low." Through this process, he realizes that the older, poorly maintained vehicles were a symptom of lower wages than those competitors paid.

Root-cause analysis can work well for an individual, a small group, or in brainstorming sessions.

A tool that can help you perform such an analysis is called a fishbone diagram. 

As the following illustration demonstrates, every fishbone diagram will look a little different depending on the particular problem being solved.

Decision making group discussion : Group excessive harmony versus excessive individualism

In decision making as a group process iindividual biases can be counteracted by the presence of multiple voices and perspectives

.

Otherwise, you may find yourself confronted with one of the following extremes.

• Excessive group harmony: Excessive group harmony occurs when individuals want to be accepted in a group or they lack interest in the process.
  
  
  • "Groupthink." This results when participants' desire for agreement overrides their motivation to evaluate alternative options. In this situation, people tend to withhold their opinions, especially if their views differ from those of the group leader.                                                                                                                                       They may spend a lot of time inquiring about what others in the group want so that the solution they reach will make everyone happy.
  • Lack of interest.  when participants lack interest in the process or do not feel empowered. If the group feels that the leader has already made the decision, 
• Excessive individualism:  individuals engage in aggressive advocacy, placing stakes in the ground, relentlessly arguing their positions. They disregard the opinions of other group members and fail to consider the common good.

Extreme behaviors can lengthen the decision-making process and interfere with making good decisions. 

Types of personal bias during discussions for decision making

Decision making is made difficult by common, often unconscious, obstacles that frequently inhibit a decision maker's ability to determine the optimal choice. Such obstacles include individual biases and unproductive group dynamics. While it is almost impossible to eliminate these obstacles, recognizing them in yourself and in the members of your group will help you make more objective decisions.
Here are some common examples of biases—distortions or preconceived notions—that people encounter when making decisions.

• Bias toward the familiar and toward past successes. We tend to base our decisions on events and information that are familiar to us.
  For example, a manager remembers her launch of a new product in Spain three years ago; it was her first big marketing success. She also vaguely remembers that a similar launch strategy was unsuccessful in a number of other countries. Because her memories of the successful Spanish launch are so vivid, she emphasizes this experience and discounts the evidence of unsuccessful launches elsewhere. When she tries to extend a new brand into Portugal, her efforts fail. While the strategy used for the Spanish launch may have been a good starting point, her reliance on a prior success led to incorrect assumptions about the Portuguese market.
• Bias toward accepting assumptions at face value. We are generally overconfident in our assumptions and therefore generate too few alternatives.
  For example, a manager purchases a software package offered by the largest vendor without collecting competitive bids. He assumes that because the package works for other users in the same industry, it will work for him. He fails to investigate other software packages that might better meet his needs.
• Bias toward the status quo. We have a tendency to resist major deviations from the status quo.
  For example, people at a company may be familiar with how to use a particular computer program and resist using an alternative, even though their program is outdated. Their resistance may be driven more by their reluctance to learn something new than by the quality of the system itself.
• Bias toward confirming our opinion. Once we form an opinion, we typically seek out information that supports our viewpoint and ignore facts that may challenge it.
  For example, a manager searches the Internet to find data supporting her preference for focus groups in market research, but does not stop to read information that supports other approaches

Differences between inquiry approach and advocacy approach in decision making

The following table illustrates the advocacy approach versus the inquiry approach to decision making:

Approaches to decision making

	Advocacy	Inquiry
Concept of decision making	A contest	Collaborative problem solving
Purpose of discussion	Persuasion and lobbying	Testing and evaluation
Participants' role	Spokespeople	Critical thinkers
Patterns of behavior	Strive to persuade others Defend your position Downplay weaknesses	Present balanced arguments Remain open to alternatives Accept constructive criticism
Minority views	Discouraged or dismissed	Cultivated and valued
The outcome	Winners and losers	Collective ownership

While inquiry is an ideal, it is seldom met in practice. It is extremely difficult for individuals to discuss ideas or issues without expressing their opinions. A more realistic and effective technique for arriving at a decision is one that balances advocacy with inquiry.

Group members leave their personal agendas behind and enter the meeting with the intention of acting as unbiased participants.

They may advocate for a position they feel strongly about, but they also inquire into other viewpoints and consider alternatives.

They understand that the goal is to find the best solution for the group as a whole, even if it means that some individuals in the group might be negatively impacted by the decision. Generally, in well-balanced sessions, people share information freely and consider multiple alternatives.